The Admiral Graf Spee was one of the most famous German naval warships of World War II, along with the Bismarck. Her size was limited to that of a cruiser by the Treaty of Versailles, but she was much more heavily armed than a cruiser due to innovative weight-saving techniques employed in her construction.

She was sent to the Atlantic Ocean as a commerce raider in 1939, where she sank nine Allied merchant ships. Numerous British hunting groups were assigned to find her, with three British ships finally tracking her down in December 1939. The Battle of the River Plate ensued, during which the Graf Spee was damaged. She docked for repairs in the neutral port of Montevideo, but was forced by international law to leave within 72 hours. Faced with what he believed to be overwhelming odds, the captain scuttled his ship rather than risk the lives of his crew.

Under the Hague Convention of 1907, the Graf Spee was not entitled to remain in the port for more than 24 hours, without risking internment. In addition, and notwithstanding the rule already mentioned, under the same convention, the Graf Spee had to give British merchant ships 24 hours start if they left port, and the British Consul arranged for the merchant ships in port to sail at 24 hour intervals, effectively locking the Spee in the port whilst at the same time spreading propaganda about the vast fleet of British warships converging on the area. On 14 December, British Minister Millington-Drake officially requested that the Uruguayan government intern the ship if she stayed in port longer than 24 hours, on grounds that she was still seaworthy. The Uruguayan government obliged, announcing that if the Graf Spee did not sail within 72 hours of its arrival, she would be interned.

At 6:15pm on 17 December 1939, the German warship left Montevideo harbor, with the British 6-inch (152 mm) gunned cruisers Ajax, Achilles, and the 8-inch (203 mm) gunned Cumberland waiting nearby in international waters. However, instead of trying to fight through the blockade, the German warship sailed just outside the harbor, and at 7:52, was scuttled in the estuary to avoid risking the crew in what Captain Langsdorff expected to be a losing battle. Captain Langsdorff committed suicide three days later by shooting himself, possibly in order to prove he had not acted out of fear for his own life. The fact that he wrapped himself in the Imperial flag before shooting himself may have been a mute admission that he had not fought in the tradition and spirit of the proud commander whose name his ship was christened.

Carnival in Rio has been called the world’s most famous party. A million tourists join millions of Rio de Janeiro citizens (“cariocas”) in enthusiastic revelry spanning several days. Of the several major parades that make up the heart of the Carnival, the Sambodromo parade is number one. Close runners-up are the street processions and masquerade balls. The Sambodromo is a 700 yard (half-mile) long parade strip flanked by spectator stands and luxury boxes. On the last Sunday and Monday nights before Lent, the seats are filled with over 60,000 eager on-lookers. Tickets cost up to hundreds of dollars each and sell out quickly. Its chief attractions are the sounds and sights of the parading samba schools that goes on from dusk to day break.

A samba school has nothing to do with education. It is typically a group from a poor neighborhood organized to produce a lavish Carnival of Rio procession – for the fun of it. Only the best 14 samba schools parade through the big-time Sambodromo (the rest conduct street processions). Every samba school strives to be judged the best overall. The members spend hundreds of dollars each to make their costumes. It can take over an hour for a single samba school to pass a given point along the parade route. Each samba school has showy floats, which are often adorned with sensuous females vibrating to the hypnotic music. The floats are accompanied by marching samba bands numbering up to 300 musicians – their drummers ceaselessly pound the contagious samba beat. All are escorted by a sea of flamboyantly or scantily clad singer-dancers.

These diverse parade elements must work as a single unit, dramatizing the same theme, which the samba school changes annually for the Carnival in Rio. As a matter of perspective each school can have up to 4,000 participants, so melding the ensemble into an organic whole is no easy task. The preparation requires nearly a year of sewing, building, composing, choreographing and rehearsing. Samba school participants pay for their own costumes, which costs some of them a sizable slice of their income. They willingly do this because Carnival in Rio is a fantasy escape, which helps them forget their hardscrabble lives.

Since some samba schools are not invited to partake in the Sambodromo parade, they take to the streets. Some parade in their neighborhoods and downtown Rio. Their festivities are free public affairs – passers-by may join the fun by dancing behind (and sometimes with) the group’s samba dancers and marching bands. Here you directly participate while in the Sambodromo seats you mainly observe.

Carnival in Rio takes place during the days preceding Ash Wednesday, the first of 40 meatless fasting days preceding Easter (Carnival derives from “carne vale” meaning “farewell to meat”). Although the official Carnival in Rio starting day is Saturday, the partying begins in earnest the night before and continues through Tuesday (Mardi Gras means “Fat Tuesday”).

The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492, although there was at least one earlier colonization effort. The first known Europeans to reach the Americas were the Vikings (Norse) during the 11th century, who established several colonies in Greenland and one short-lived settlement in the area the Norse called Vinland, present day Newfoundland. Settlements in Greenland survived for several centuries, during which time the Greenland Norse and the Inuit people experienced mostly hostile contact. By the end of the 15th century, the Norse Greenland settlements had collapsed.

The first conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world between themselves, with a line drawn through South America. Based on this Treaty, and the claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Balboa to all lands touching the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish rapidly conquered territory, with Hernan Cortes overthrowing the Aztec and Francisco Pizarro conquering the Inca Empire. As a result, they gained control of much of western South America, Central America and Mexico by the mid-16th century, in addition to its earlier Caribbean conquests. Over this same timeframe, Portugal conquered much of eastern South America, naming it Brazil.

Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which they had not negotiated. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these met with failure. However, in the following century, the two kingdoms, along with the Dutch Republic, succeeded in establishing permanent colonies. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.

Portuguese

During the first two centuries of the colonial period, attracted by the vast natural resources and untapped land, other European powers tried to establish colonies in several parts of Brazilian territory, in defiance of the papal bull and the Treaty of Tordesillas, which had divided the New World into two parts between Portugal and Spain. French colonists tried to settle in present-day Rio de Janeiro, from 1555 to 1567 (the so-called France Antarctique episode), and in present-day São Luís, from 1612 to 1614. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch formally withdrew in 1661. Little French and Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remained of these failed attempts.

Spanish

The New Kingdom of Granada was the name given to a group of 16th century Spanish colonial provinces in northern South America, corresponding mainly to modern Colombia. It became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717.  The new Viceroyalty of Peru ruled the Southern part of the Spanish Empire.

Dutch

At the Treaty of Breda, in 1667, the Dutch decided to keep the nascent plantation colony of Suriname conquered from the British, while leaving the small trading post of New Amsterdam in North America, now New York City, in the hands of the British.

Guyana Lord Willoughby, famous in the early history of Barbados, also turned his attention to Guiana, and founded a settlement in Suriname in 1651. This was captured by the Dutch in 1667, and though later recaptured by the British, it was ceded to the Dutch at the Peace of Breda (1667).

French

In 1667 the British seized French Guiana. Following the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667 the area was given back to France. The Dutch briefly occupied it for a period in 1676, though they occupied Cayanne from 1664–76.

British

Argentina claimed its independence on July 9, 1816 with the help of General San Martin. Many of its neighboring countries claimed their independence during the same time and Argentina was officially recognized as independent from the United Kingdom in 1825. During this period Argentina was mostly made up of Spanish immigrants and gauchos, a culture still honored today as a trademark of this time.

The Conquest of Peru was the historic process of military conquest of the Inca Empire by Spanish conquistadores. After years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, 182 Spanish soldiers under Francisco Pizarro and their native allies ambushed the emperor of the Inca Empire and captured him in the 1532 Battle of Cajamarca. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In subsequent years Spain extended its rule over the Empire.

When the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, the empire spanned a considerable distance. The empire covered some of the most mountainous terrain on earth. In less than a century the empire had grown in extent from about 155,000 sq mi/400,000 km² in 1448, to 380,000 sq mi/980,000 km² (or about the size of the eastern seaboard of the US)  It embraced greatly varying cultures and geography.  Many areas of the empire were left under local leaders, who were watched and monitored by Inca officials. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Incas, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the direct control of, the Emperor. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire probably numbered over 16,000,000.

In 1529, Francisco Pizarro obtained permission from the Spanish Monarchy to conquer the land they called Peru. Unknown to Pizarro, as he was lobbying for permission, his proposed enemy was being decimated by the diseases brought to the American continents by the earlier Spanish contacts. When Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, he found it vastly different than when he had been there just five years before. Amid the ruins of the city of Tumbez, he tried to piece together the situation before him. From two young local boys who he had taught how to speak Spanish in order to translate for him, Pizarro learned of the civil war and of the disease that was destroying the Inca Empire.

The long term effects of the arrival of the Spanish on the population of South America were simply catastrophic. While this is the case for every group of Native-Americans that encountered European contact from the fifteenth century on, the Incan population suffered a dramatic and quick decline following contact. It is estimated that parts of the empire, notably the Central Andes, suffered a population decline ratio of 58:1 during the years of 1520-1571.

The single greatest cause of the demise of native populations was disease. Old World diseases brought over unknowingly by colonists and conquistadors wreaked havoc on native populations at a greater rate than any army or armed conflict. The fact that the Inca did not have as strong of a writing tradition as the Aztecs or Maya is one reason why it is more difficult to estimate population decline or any events after subjugation. However, it is apparent that illness from the Spaniards predated their actual presence in the region by several years. The outbreak, believed to be hemorrhagic smallpox, entered the Andes in 1524. While numbers are unavailable, Spanish records indicate that the population was so devastated by disease that their forces could hardly be resisted. The first was of 30-50

percent during the first outbreak of smallpox. Then, when smallpox was followed with the measles, another decline of 25-30 percent occurred. Finally, when smallpox and measles appeared together, which occurred from 1585 to 1591, a decline of 30-60 percent occurred. Collectively these declines amounted to a decline of 93 percent from the population pre-contact in the Andes region.

Beyond the devastation of the local populations by disease, there was also considerable enslavement, pillaging and destruction from warfare. Thousands of women were taken from the local populations by the Spanish and used by conquistadors as personal vassals. As Pizarro and his men took over portions of South America they plundered and enslaved countless people. There are some Spanish documents that suggest that the local populations entered into vassalage willingly, but these are likely cases of people being threatened with death after the destruction of their region. The basic policy of the Spanish towards local populations was that voluntary vassalage would yield safety and coexistence while continued resistance would lead to more death and destruction.

Another significant effect on the people in South America was the spread of Christianity. As Pizarro and the Spanish subdued the continent and brought it under their control, they forcefully converted many to Christianity, claiming to have educated them in the ways of the “one true religion.” With the destruction of the local populations along with the capitulation of the Inca Empire, the Spanish missionary work after colonization began was able to continue unimpeded. It took just a generation for the entire continent to be under Christian influence.

One of the largest of the Group of Active Volcanoes in the World, South America spans the greatest length of any continental volcanic region. South America leads all other regions in population of volcanoes, with 204: it has the largest number of undated “Holocene” volcanoes (112) and is second only to Japan in the number of volcanoes with dated eruptions. The human population, however, is less large, with the volcano nations of South America totalling less than 90 million, or approximately that of Mexico (with over three times the land area).

When South America was discovered by Columbus, on his 3rd voyage in 1498, the Inca civilization was large and highly developed, but no records survive of the Andean volcanic activity  that they surely witnessed. In 1524, Pizarro started his first voyage along the Pacific coast and within 10 years Atahualpa was executed and the Inca conquered by Spain. Travel overland was slow and difficult, so the Spaniards sailed south, launching their exploration of the Andes from Perú and what is now Ecuador. A result of this pattern is that 27 16th century eruptions are known from Perú northward, while three are known south of Perú (and only eight more in the 17th century). In southern Chile, where the population is sparse and the mountains remote, only two (of 24) volcanoes have recorded eruptions before the early 1800s.

Starting with Argentina, Bolivia and Chile and the volcanoes of the Central Andes it is easy to see the intense activity and proliferation of these giants of fire and smoke.

The first one is Copahue that lies in both Argentina and Chile. It’s elevation is 9,728 ft (that is 2.965 m). The volcano was formed approximately 600,000 years ago near the NW margin of the Pliocene. It usually shows intense smoke and fume activity. The eruptions are not often and not very explosive.

The next one is Parinacota, it is located in both countries Chile and Bolivia. It is not only a volcano it is an unusual lake supplying numerous small lakes with water.

The third one is Sajama in Bolivia. Love volcanoes that provide us with adorable sceneries and can’t hurt people. I mean it has not erupted in the last 10,000 years.

The 4th volcano is Guallatir in Chile. Actually, this volcano is still treated as the active one. Its recent eruption took place in 1985.

The 5th one is the Lascar Volcano on Chile. It is an active one. The last eruption was in 1993. Frankly speaking, Lascar is the most active volcano in the central Andes.

The Perito Moreno Glacier is considered one of the amazing wonders of the world and one of the highlights for travelers to Argentina. There are only a few advancing glaciers in the world, and Perito Moreno is one of those very rare wonders.

This glacier never retreats, but instead advances over Lake Argentina, an amazing natural phenomenon that occurs on average every three years. As the glacier advances it forms a natural dam which separates the two halves of the lake when it reaches the opposite shore. With no escape route, the water-level on the Brazo Rico side of the lake can rise by up to 30 meters above the level of the main lake. The enormous pressure produced by the height of the dammed water finally breaks the ice barrier holding it back, in a spectacular rupture event. This dam/rupture cycle is not regular and it recurs naturally at any frequency between once a year to less than once a decade.

Even if you miss the gigantic breakages, usually an event that occurs every day, ice blocks from the glacier continuously detach and fall into the lake, causing a dramatic crashing sounds and waves. It is an awe-inspiring site to see the surface of the glacier change before your eyes. The ice floats in the lake and creates an awesome sapphire blue color as it slowly melts.

Guides are available to lead excursions and they are a popular way to explore the glacier. The tour guides are very skillful in the reading of the glacier and with a little coaxing will allow you the chance to actually walk on it.

The light in the morning and afternoon is quite breathtaking as it strikes the pristine ice fields and creates a blue-green glow on the jagged pieces of ice. Because of the effects of the sun, wind, and constant breakage of ice, the face of the glacier is constantly changing.

On your way to the glacier you’ll be amazed at the glistening landscape of ancient forests, waterfalls, and two giant lakes. Just before reaching the glacier you will get to see the first panoramic view, know as “Curve de los Suspiros,” (Sighs Bend). This is a great place to see just how massive and spectacular the glacier is.

Further on you’ll reach the footbridges that connect to stairs leading up to balconies, which allow for alternative views of the glacier. You can also enjoy the spectacular views of Perito Moreno at any of the luxury rooms at local hotels.

Many a pretend world explorer or African Type Adventurer wannabee, perhaps stuck in a dreary life or daily rut has dreamed of their great adventure to drive from one end of a continent to the other.

More than a few have asked the question: Can I drive from the Chicago to the South Pole?

The short answer is no, of course not. But – and this is a big but – you can, in theory and with the proper vehicle, drive from the southern tip of Argentina to The northernmost part of Columbia and its border with Panama. The Darien Gap of Panama and Colombia is a fool’s challenge, and a motorist’s nightmare. The road less Darien Gap is over 125 miles of thick jungles, tortuous rivers, low but rugged mountains, and a vast marshy swamp that separates Panama from South America. The highway ends there in the mountains, but the Pan American Highway stretches from the Antarctic to the top of the temperate zone of South America.

The first is a little geographical sand trap/swamp known as the Darien Gap. The 125 miles long and 31 miles wide stretch of wild, murky rainforest  links Panama with Colombia, and this one continent with another, has become the veritable missing link of the Pan-American Highway. High costs for one, and environmental concerns for another, have always impeded efforts to complete the last piece of the highway puzzle. It’s not as simple as cutting down precious rainforest. The problem is that the Gap’s foundation is primarily marshland. It is not  easy to build a highway over that kind of swampy, soupy mess. The logistics are one obstacle, with the distinct possibility that environmental protection and cultural conservation groups will be up in arms over the construction project as the more formidable second.

So, in theory, if you could find a rugged, high clearance vehicle with huge flotation tires and possibly a dugout canoe to muddle through the Gap, you might make the crossing. But, you would still have to cross the massive UNESCO World Heritage Darien National Park in Panama and getting permits to do that is almost a lifelong challenge. After you surmount the horrendous obstacles you can pursue your Panama to The Tip of Argentina dream (or vice versa).

There is one other huge obstacle:   That is the political barrier between Columbia and Panama that may never be broken due to the long standing tensions between these two ancient nations coupled with the blood feud over drug and people smuggling that rages every day in the international court of world opinion.

IT’S NOT THE END OF THE WORLD!

(WELL, ACTUALLY IT IS!)

The inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego refer to their region as El Fin del Mundo, (The End of the World).

Ushuaia, the capital city of the Argentine side of this END OF THE WORLD, is the southernmost city in the world. This growing town is located at the base of the Cordillera Darwin which rises up to 1.5 miles above sea level, and is formed of the most rugged, and glacially-carved features found anywhere. It is the capitol of the Argentine province and boasts a population that now exceeds 65,000.

This is the end of the Andes Mountains that stretch virtually the entire and unbroken length of South America.

Though the Antarctic is somewhere in the distance, the ultimate or near-ultimate end of a particular continent is often cause for excitement, drama or at the very least, crazy photo opportunities. Bragging rights too, because after all, it takes a certain sense of adventure to decide on a whim that the end of the world is the place to be. Argentina’s Tierra del Fuego certainly stirs up this kind of emotion.

The bottom of South America is a curious landscape. Across from the perilous Strait of Magellan, Tierra del Fuego is that vast collection of islands where Argentina meets Chile, at the very bottom of the Americas. The region lies at the very southern most tip of the vast wildness of Patagonia, which is a land of mystique, awe and amazing natural wonders.

Ushuaia is a prime target for eco-tourists intent on experiencing the thrill of close contact with orcas, seals, penguins and a huge variety of exotic, migratory birds. The region is supported by the fact that the city and indeed, entire province of Tierra del Fuego, supports such brilliant scenery, topography, fauna and flora.

(or The Road of Death)

In the country of Bolivia there is a truly amazing road carved into the mountain sides that at times defys understanding or courage. The combination of the Stremnaya road and the Yungas Road are often referred to as the Road of Death.

To the locals there are several sections with more unique names of their own such as Cororico Road, Camino de las Yungas, Grove’s Road, The North Yungas Road and the more editorially fascinating Road of Death. It is roughly a 43 mile road the winds up and down the sides of the mountains  from La Paz to Cororico. Cororico is about 40 miles northeast of La Paz in the Yungas region of Bolivia. This particular stretch of road is frequently labeled by journalists, TV documentarians and novelists as the most dangerous road in the world. It is legendary for its extreme danger and treacherous turns, drop offs and poor condition, particularly in the rainy season, when mud slides dramatically increase the hazard. According to Bolivian Officials there are more than 100 deaths each year along this stretch of dirt and gravel. White painted wooden crosses dot the sides of the road and many are cut into the side of the mountain to preserve them as a shrine/marker/tribute of those who have succumbed to gravity and mishap along the Road of Death.

The road descends from approx. 14,100 ft to 6200 ft transitioning quickly from cool grassy terrain to rain forest as it winds through very steep hillsides and atop cliffs, and outcroppings of hard rock.

The road was built in the 1930s during the Chaco War by Paraguayan prisoners. It is one of the few routes that connect the Amazon rainforest region of northern Bolivia, or Yungas, to its capital city at La Paz. However, an alternative, much safer, road connecting La Paz to Cororico is nearing completion. Until that is completed this is THE main connection.

Because of the extreme drop-offs, single-lane width, and lack of guardrails, the road is extremely dangerous. Further still, rain and fog can make visibility precarious, the road surface becomes very muddy, and the rains also loosen rocks from the hillsides above. On July 24, 1983, a bus veered off  and into a canyon, killing more than 100 passengers in what is said to be Bolivia’s worst road accident. One of the local road rules specifies that the downhill driver never has the right of way and must move to the outer edge of the road. This forces the uphill vehicles to stop so that passing can be negotiated safely. The danger of the road ironically though has made it a popular tourist destination starting in the 1990s. Mountain biker enthusiasts, in particular, have made it a favorite destination for downhill biking.

Clément Duval

Devil’s Island was used mainly for French prisoners from 1852 to 1946. Clément Duval, an anarchist, was sent to Devil’s Island in 1886. He was sentenced to death but this sentence commuted to hard labor on Devil’s Island. He contracted smallpox while on the island. He escaped in April 1901 and fled to New York City, where he remained for the rest of his life. He eventually wrote a book on his time of imprisonment called Revolte.

Henri Charrière and Sylvain

Henri Charrière’s bestselling book Papillon describes a supposedly successful escape from Devil’s Island, with a companion, Sylvain, using two sacks filled with coconuts. According to Charrière, the two men leapt into heavy seas from a cliff and drifted to the mainland over a period of three days. Sylvain died in quicksand a short distance from the shore. It became a wildly popular movie with Steve McQueen and Dustin Hoffman.

Charrière’s account aroused considerable controversy and was disputed by the French authorities, who released penal colony records that showed that much of the prisoner’s book was untrue. Charrière, the records showed, had never been interned on Devil’s Island and had made his escape from a prison camp on the mainland. Numerous other aspects of Charrière’s account were challenged by French journalists or prison authorities, and it was claimed that a significant number of the incidents recounted in his book were invented or were experiences of other prisoners which Charrière had appropriated.

In 1938 the French government stopped sending prisoners to Devil’s Island, and in 1952 the prison was closed. Most of the prisoners returned to metropolitan France, although some chose to remain in French Guiana.

In 1965, the French government transferred the responsibility of most of the islands to the newly founded Guiana Space Centre. The CNES space agency, in association with other agencies, has since had the historical monuments restored. Tourism facilities were added; the islands now welcome more than 50,000 tourists each year. All of the islands and the Space Launch Facilities are under the watchful eye of the French Foreign Legion who provide police services and security for the area.